Country Overview
Population: 24,672,760
Population Growth Rate: 4.83%
Religious Groups Breakdown: Muslim 87% (official; includes Sunni 74% and Alawi, Ismaili, and Shia 13%), Christian 10% (includes Orthodox, Uniate, and Nestorian), Druze 3%
Youth Unemployment: 33.5%
UNDP HDI: 157
Life Expectancy (Male & Female Life Expectancy): 72 years (M:69 , F:76)
Literacy Rate (Male & Female Literacy Rate): 94% (M:97% , F:92%)
Primary School Completion Rate: 62
Median Age: 22.8
Capital: Damascus
Largest City: Damascus
Nationality: Syrian
Currency: Syrian Pound
Languages: Arabic, Kurdish, Armenian, Neo-Aramaic, Circassian, Chechen, Greek, English and French
Agriculture: Wheat, sugar beets, barley, corn, millet, cotton
Industries: Petroleum, textiles, food processing, beverages, tobacco, phosphate rock mining, cement, oil seeds crushing, and car assembly
Geography
Syria (Official name: Syrian Arab Republic; Arabic pronunciation: Suriya) lies between Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea on the west, Jordan on the south, Turkey on the north, and Iraq on the east. It has an area of approximately 71,498 sq miles, which equates to an area slightly larger than North Dakota. Syria has four main geographic regions: the coastal region, mountain ranges (notably the Anti-Lebanon Mountains and the Jabal al-Druze), the interior plains (like the fertile Al-Jazira area), and the eastern desert region. The Euphrates River, one of Syria’s most significant waterways, flows through the northeast and plays a crucial role in agriculture and settlement.
Syria’s western coast along the Mediterranean is fertile, benefiting from the region's Mediterranean climate. The coastal plain is relatively narrow, while inland areas quickly rise to mountainous regions. These areas provide cooler temperatures and are home to unique ecosystems.
The climate is hot and dry in the summers, and mild and rainy in the winters, when snow occasionally falls in the capital city Damascus. Most of the country is semiarid desert, with summer temperatures reaching into the mid 30s Celsius (mid 90s Fahrenheit) and winter temperatures in the 10s Celsius (50s Fahrenheit). There are mountains in the western part of the country.
The northeast of the country is rich with natural resources which include petroleum, phosphates, chrome and manganese ores, asphalt, iron ore, rock salt, marble, and gypsum. Unfortunately, there is a growing problem of deforestation, desertification and water pollution due to poor governmental irrigation practices, climate change, and war. The Syrian government established an environmental ministry to address these problems in 2009, but the ministry lacks the funding and political power to implement meaningful change in policy.
Climate Change
Human-induced climate change has had profound impacts within Syria, especially in the agriculture industry. While in the past Syrian farmers enjoyed fertile and relatively productive lands, particular in the Euphrates River valley, the country has been hit by three droughts since the 1980s. The most recent, which stretched from 2006 to 2010, was recorded as the worst multi-year drought globally for around 900 years. This period of decreased precipitation and rising temperatures has resulted in the continuing desertification and destruction of productive land, killing 85 percent of the country’s livestock, slashing crop yields by two-thirds, and causing 800,000 people to lose their income in the agriculture sector. These developments caused the migration of over 2 million people from rural areas into large cities in search of new work. Such transitions have contributed heavily to the ongoing conflict and economic collapse which holds sway over Syria today.
A key environmental concern for Syria is related to the Euphrates River, which has its origins within Turkey, and serves as a backbone of the agricultural and pastoral sectors of Syria's economy. As a downstream nation, Syria has been significantly affected by the construction of hydroelectric dams on the Euphrates by Turkey, and has witnessed an estimated 30-60 percent reduction in downstream water flow as a result. This has in turn undermined local water security for individuals and industries, invigorated the rate of desertification of arable land, and increased soil salinity as well as water pollution. In this regard, the ongoing completion of the Turkish GAP Project, which involves the creation of 22 new dams, is predicted to increase the amount of insecticide and irrigation waste in the Syrian-held Euphrates by 35 percent.
The lack of water security in Syria, brought about in part by the construction of hydroelectric dams in Turkey, has increased the amount of Syrians depending on unsafe alternatives to piped water to 47 percent in 2022 from 38 percent last year. The discharge of wastewater and the crippled state of the sewage system in many parts of the country as a consequence of the civil war, has led to the contamination of groundwater resources and undermined public health. This has witnessed the spread of numerous water-borne illnesses, such as leishmaniasis in Aleppo and Dier Al-Zawr, and typhoid fever around Damascus. The reproductive health of women and girl’s has been especially impacted by the enduring water scarcity and shortages, with increases in maternal morbidity and mortality.
Geography Resources
History
Ancient Syria
Syria, like other Levantine states, is located in the heart of what is commonly referred to as the cradle of civilization, where some of the world’s earliest non-nomadic communities emerged. In the third millennium BCE, Syria was the site of the sprawling Ebla civilization, which developed one of the oldest written languages and established a significant economic hub, trading with ancient cities like Byblos, Damascus, and Ur. Another early Syrian site, Ugarit, yielded the earliest known alphabet, marking Syria’s lasting contribution to language development. Over the following centuries, the region was conquered by various empires, including the Phoenicians, Sumerians, and Hittites.
Roman and Palmyrene Influence
The city of Antioch (modern-day Antakya) became one of the largest cities in the Roman Empire around 13 CE. Queen Zenobia of the Palmyrene Empire, in Roman Syria, expanded the city of Palmyra, which today is one of Syria’s most famous historical sites.
Syria joined the Islamic Umayyad Empire in 640 CE and prospered as the empire’s capital moved to Damascus. Under Umayyad rule, Damascus became a cultural and political center of the early Islamic world. After the fall of the Umayyad dynasty, the territory passed through Abbasid, Mongol, Mamluk, and Ottoman hands.
Abbasid and Crusader Periods
After the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate in 750 CE, Syria became part of the Abbasid Caliphate, moving the Islamic empire’s capital to Baghdad. Although Damascus lost its status as the empire’s capital, it remained a key regional center of commerce and culture under Abbasid rule. During the 9th century, Syria began to experience increased autonomy as the Abbasid Caliphate weakened, leading to local governors and dynasties asserting control.
During the 11th century, Syria became a battleground in the Crusades, as European Christian forces sought to capture the Holy Land. The First Crusade resulted in the capture of Jerusalem and the establishment of Crusader states along the Levantine coast. However, Syria’s Muslim leaders, including the famous Kurdish general Saladin, pushed back. Saladin united the Muslim territories and recaptured Jerusalem in 1187, cementing his legacy as a hero in Islamic history. After the Crusades, Syria came under the control of the Mamluks, a powerful military caste originally of slave origin who ruled from Egypt. The Mamluks repelled Mongol invasions, including the famous Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, which halted Mongol expansion into the Middle East. Under Mamluk rule, Syria experienced a period of economic and cultural prosperity, with cities like Damascus flourishing as centers of learning, trade, and crafts.
Ottoman Era and Arab Identity
In 1516, the Ottoman Empire under Sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluks at Marj Dabiq, bringing Syria under Ottoman rule for the next 400 years. Divided into administrative regions, Syria’s cities thrived as key trade hubs between Anatolia, Arabia, and the Mediterranean. Damascus, as the starting point for pilgrims to Mecca, held particular significance in the Islamic world. While Ottoman rule was generally stable, Syria did face periods of unrest, such as the 19th-century rebellions spurred by local grievances over taxation and economic hardship. By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a sense of Arab identity and nationalism was growing across the region. Influenced by the intellectual awakening of the Arab Nahda (Renaissance) and the decline of Ottoman power, Syrian intellectuals and leaders began advocating for independence and reform.
Sykes-Picot and the French Mandate
During World War I, as the Ottoman Empire sides with the Central Powers, Britain and France supported Arab uprisings that contributed to its weakening. In 1915, British and French diplomats, Sir Mark Sykes and François Georges-Picot, secretly negotiated the Sykes-Picot Agreement, which divided Ottoman territories into zones of influence. This agreement assigned Syria and Lebanon to France, while Britain would oversee Palestine and Iraq.
Immediately after World War I, a member of the Hashemite Dynasty, Faisal I, established the independent, but short-lived, Arab Kingdom of Syria. He was later made king of Iraq, and Syria soon fell under the French mandate. The French administration faced significant resistance, including the Great Syrian Revolt from 1925 to 1927, as Syrians sought self-governance. French forces suppressed these uprisings, and Syria remained under French control until World War II.
Road to Independence
When France fell to Nazi Germany, a coalition of British and Free French soldiers pushed the Germans and Vichy government (a puppet French government set up by the Nazis) out of Syria in 1941. Subsequently, the Free French declared an end to its mandate in Syria. However, it wasn’t until April 1946, after public protests and international pressure, that the last French troops withdrew, granting Syria full independence.
Post-Independence Turmoil
With the final departure of the British from Palestine in 1948 and the subsequent formation of Israel, Syria joined the Arab alliance in the war against Israel. Israel stopped the invading armies and the Syrian army retreated to its previous borders. Syria experienced political instability through military coups in 1949, 1954, 1961, 1963, and 1966. The last coup marked the rise of the Assad family as Hafez al-Assad became Defense Minister. In the 1967 Six-Day War, Syria joined Jordan in response to an Israeli strike on Egypt. Israel then invaded and occupied the Golan Heights, a strategic area Syria continues to dispute.
Assad Regime and Modern Conflict
In 1970, Hafez al-Assad assumed power in a final coup, establishing the Assad family’s rule. His authoritarian regime intervened in Lebanon’s civil war in 1976, with Syrian troops remaining there until the early 2000s. Hafez ruled until his death in 2000, after which his son, Bashar al-Assad, took power. Although initially expected to reform and modernize Syria, Bashar quickly reverted to his father’s oppressive tactics.
The Civil War and Foreign Intervention
In 2011, the Arab Spring sparked anti-government protests across Syria. The regime's violent crackdown led to widespread anger, and by summer, armed opposition groups formed to resist government forces. The Syrian National Council initially represented the opposition but was soon replaced by the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces, which gained international recognition. Western countries imposed sanctions on the Assad regime, but efforts to pass U.N. sanctions were blocked by Russia and China. Peace talks continued to fail as Assad pulled out of agreements established by the Arab League and the United Nations. Multiple countries began providing non-lethal aid to Syrian rebels but were hesitant to provide military equipment in fear of inadvertently arming extremists groups such as the large al-Qaeda affiliate, al-Nusra Front. The conflict escalated into a civil war, with international actors, including Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Turkey, backing rebel forces, while Iran and Hezbollah supported Assad. In 2013, Assad’s forces crossed a "red line" set by U.S. President Obama by using chemical weapons, leading to international condemnation and a Russian-brokered agreement for Syria to surrender its chemical arsenal.
Rise of Extremist Groups
Meanwhile, extremist groups such as the al-Nusra Front, a faction of Al-Qaeda, and ISIS rose to prominence within Syria. In 2014, ISIS declared a "caliphate" with Raqqa as its capital, seizing large parts of Syria and Iraq. The group became infamous for its brutal tactics, including mass executions and public beheadings of aid workers and journalists. A coalition of Western and regional forces, including the Kurdish-led Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), formed to counter ISIS, drawing international focus away from Assad’s regime.
Ongoing Crisis
As of recent estimates, the civil war has led to over 4.2 million registered Syrian refugees, with millions more internally displaced. The ongoing conflict, compounded by foreign interventions, has left Syria divided, with complex alliances and devastated infrastructure. Assad’s government had regained control over most of Syria’s cities, however, big parts of the country were still out of the government’s control.
In 2024, the conflict in Syria reached a turning point with the formation of a new coalition called the Military Operations Command (MOC), starting an offensive in north-western Syria in November of the same year. The new grouping is made up of a broad spectrum of opposition forces, from Islamists factions to moderates. The rebels quickly took over the second-largest city, Aleppo, and then captured the capital, Damascus, as the military collapsed. Assad’s forces were weakened by years of war, sanctions and eruptions and struggled to mount a defence. Russia was preoccupied by the war in Ukraine and the Iran-backed group Hezbollah was suffering from Israel’s offensive in Lebanon, creating a power vacuum. Hours after the rebels entered Damascus, Russia announced that Bashar al-Assad had stepped down and left Syria, granted asylum in Moscow. The rebels have promised to build a “homeland for all, including all sects and social classes”.
Outgoing Prime Minister Mohammed al-Jalili confirmed that many members of the former cabinet were already working with the rebels to ensure a smooth transitional period. The National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces, now representing the former opposition, stated its commitment to establishing a transitional governing body with full executive powers to pave the way for a free, democratic, and pluralistic Syria.
History Resources
Government
Syria is a de jure semi-presidential republic under the 2012 Constitution, though in practice it functions as an authoritarian, one-party state dominated by the presidency. The executive branch of the Syrian government consists of the President, who serves as the Head of State and holds extensive powers, the Prime Minister, who acts as the Head of Government, and the Council of Ministers. Per Article 88 of the 2012 Syrian Constitution, presidential term limits are construed to seven-years, with the possibility of one-reelection. In contrast, the Prime Minister is appointed by the President, who occupies a more administrative role as the advisor to government bodies, an overseer of the cabinet, and a supervisor in view of supporting the enforcement of laws. The Presidency remains the most powerful position in the country, with the ability to dismiss and appoint the Prime Minister as well as the Council of Ministers, dissolve the 250-seat unicameral legislature (called the People’s Assembly), veto legislation, and oversee the Syrian armed forces (Syrian Arab Army) as Commander-in-Chief.
The current President, Bashar Al-Assad, inherited power from his father Hafez Al-Assad in 2000, following the latter’s death which ended his 30-year rule. In this respect Syria has been described as a hereditary republic. Elections in Syria are not considered free and fair by international standards. Despite the repealing of the 1973 Constitution, which designated the Arab Socialist Ba’ath Party (ASBP) as the “leading party in the society and the state”, Syria remains a one-party state. The rule of the ASBP, which has been maintained since 1963 has not been uninterrupted under the new 2012 Constitution, which theoretically allowed for multi-party participation in the government. Furthermore, while some other minor political parties are allowed to operate publicly, they must join the National Progressive Front, an ASBP-led coalition which has held an overwhelming majority in the People’s Assembly since 1973. PICTURE 3
In the most recent Presidential election of 2021, Bashar Al-Assad won with supposedly 95 percent of the vote, and proceeded to appoint Hussein Arnous to the post of Prime Minister on August 10th 2021. Since then, the Arnous cabinet has primarily been confronted with salvaging the deteriorating economic crisis, rampant inflation of the Syrian Lira, and facilitating the post-war reconstruction of the country.
Syria’s legal framework draws on both civil and Islamic law, with Article 3 of the 2012 Constitution stating that the president must be a Muslim and that Islamic jurisprudence serves as a key legislative source, though it stops short of designating Islam as the state religion. The Assad government’s focus in recent years has been stabilizing its hold domestically and managing the economic and social effects of the prolonged conflict, but prospects for substantial political reform remain limited under the current authoritarian structure.
As of 2024, Syria is undergoing a significant political transformation after the collapse of the Assad government and the capture of Damascus by the rebel coalition known as the Military Operations Command (MOC). The coalition wants to establish a transitional governing body to oversee the transition to a democratic and pluralistic Syria. Outgoing Prime Minister Mohammed al-Jalilli said that many members of the former government are cooperating with the rebels to ensure a smooth transfer of power. The National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces, previously representing opposition groups, has committed to creating a transitional governing body with full executive powers. This is the first serious attempt at inclusive governance since the start of the civil war.
Government Resources
International & Regional Issues
The Civil War and Foreign Intervention
The Syrian civil war, sparked by protests during the Arab Spring in 2011, quickly escalated into a brutal conflict between the Assad regime and various opposition forces. Over time, it drew in foreign powers and regional allies with conflicting goals. Syria’s main allies—Russia, Iran, and Hezbollah—have provided the Assad government with military and financial support, helping it regain control over large portions of the country. In contrast, factions within the opposition have received support from Turkey, the United States, and some Gulf states, contributing to Syria’s fragmentation and escalating the conflict into a prolonged proxy war. This international involvement has made peace efforts challenging, as countries continue to back different sides.
The recent collapse of the Assad government has drastically reshaped the Syrian conflict, creating a power vacuum that has led to intensified clashes among various factions. Rebel forces, bolstered by renewed international support, have seized significant territory, including Damascus and other key urban centers. The former regime’s fall has fragmented the country further, with local militias, Islamist groups, and tribal factions vying for control.
Turkey and Kurdish Forces
One of the central regional conflicts within Syria involves Turkey and the Kurdish-led Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF). Turkey views the SDF as an extension of the PKK, a Kurdish militant group that operates within Turkey. To counter this perceived threat, Turkey has conducted military incursions into northern Syria, aiming to create a "safe zone" along its border. This operation has heightened tensions with both the United States, which backs the SDF in the fight against the Islamic State (IS), and with Russia, which seeks to expand its own influence in northeastern Syria. Turkey’s actions have led to the displacement of many civilians and have destabilized the region further.
Turkey’s conflict with the Kurdish-led Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) has escalated amid the post-Assad power vacuum. Ankara has launched new military operations in northern Syria, seeking to expand its "safe zone" and dismantle what it perceives as a threat from Kurdish groups linked to the PKK.
Israel and Iran-Backed Militias
Another critical conflict involves Israel and Iran-backed militias, including Hezbollah, operating in Syria. Israel, concerned about Iran’s growing presence near its borders, has conducted hundreds of airstrikes targeting Iranian and Hezbollah positions in southern Syria. These operations aim to limit Iran’s ability to establish a military foothold, but they risk drawing Syria into a larger regional conflict. This ongoing confrontation also underscores the broader struggle for regional dominance between Iran and Israel, with Syria caught in the middle.
The collapse of the Assad government has intensified the struggle between Israel and Iranian-backed militias in southern Syria. Without the Assad regime to provide coordination, Iran has entrenched its forces further into the south, prompting a sharp increase in Israeli airstrikes targeting arms depots, command centers, and supply routes.
This escalation has heightened fears of a broader regional conflict, as Hezbollah and other Iranian proxies seek to fill the power vacuum in Syria. Israel’s military campaign has intensified, reflecting its determination to prevent the establishment of a permanent Iranian foothold near its borders.
US-Led coalition and the fight against ISIS
The U.S. and its allies, through air support and backing of the SDF, have focused on eradicating IS in Syria. Although IS no longer holds significant territory, the group continues to carry out attacks, particularly in northeastern Syria, posing a persistent security threat. The U.S. presence in Syria, primarily justified as part of the anti-IS effort, has been a source of tension with both Russia and the Assad regime, who view it as an occupation. Washington’s partnership with Kurdish forces also strains its relations with Turkey, as Ankara strongly opposes the SDF.
The U.S. and its allies face new challenges in Syria’s rapidly changing landscape. The absence of the Assad regime has emboldened Islamic State (IS) cells, which have stepped up attacks in northeastern Syria. The U.S.-backed SDF, already under pressure from Turkey, is struggling to contain the resurgence of IS amid the broader chaos.
Washington's military presence in Syria remains contentious, with Russia and Iran opposing its continued role. The U.S. now faces difficult decisions about how to manage its alliances and counterterrorism operations in Syria without Assad.
Humanitarian Crisis and Refugee Burden
The Syrian civil war has created one of the world’s worst humanitarian crises. According to the UN, over 5.7 million Syrians have sought refuge in neighboring countries, including Turkey, Lebanon, and Jordan, while 6.7 million remain internally displaced. Refugees in host countries often face extreme hardships, including poor living conditions, limited access to education and healthcare, and vulnerability to exploitation. The massive influx of refugees has strained these countries' infrastructure and resources, creating additional economic and social challenges.
Golan Heights and Regional Border Disputes
The area known as the Golan Heights remains controlled by the Israeli military with an almost 1,000-strong UN Disengagement Observer Force patrolling a buffer zone since 1974. Lacking a treaty or other documentation describing the boundary, portions of the Lebanon-Syria border are unclear, with several sections in dispute. Since 2000, Lebanon has claimed the Shab’a Farms in the Golan Heights. A 2004 agreement and pending demarcation are attempting to settle a border dispute with Jordan.
The fall of the Assad regime has left Syria’s borders in disarray. In the Golan Heights, Israeli forces remain vigilant against potential incursions by Iranian-backed militias operating in the region. Meanwhile, longstanding border disputes with Lebanon and Jordan remain unresolved, further complicating the regional security situation.
Environmental and Resource Challenges
Water scarcity and environmental degradation are also significant issues in Syria. Droughts and resource depletion, exacerbated by conflict, have placed enormous strain on agricultural areas, particularly in eastern Syria. The Euphrates River, a critical water source for Syria and neighboring Iraq, has become a source of regional friction, especially with Turkey controlling much of its upstream flow. As water becomes scarcer, competition over this resource has the potential to intensify conflict and worsen Syria’s humanitarian crisis.
Palestinian and Iraqi Refugees in Syria
Syria holds over 438,000 Palestinian refugees and roughly 87,000 from Iraq. These refugees mostly reside within designated refugee camps. Since the outbreak of the civil war in 2011, more than one million Syrians remain displaced within their own country in addition to the Palestinian and Iraqi refugees.
According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, many refugees of all nationalities in Syria are beginning to flee to neighboring Turkey (1.5 million), Lebanon (1.16 million), Jordan (.62 million), and Iraq (235,000), further escalating regional tensions and straining resources of already struggling host countries. Many of the refugees have been subjected to nearly unlivable conditions, slave-like labor, and sex trafficking.
COVID-19
The COVID-19 pandemic struck Syria amid the devastation of a prolonged civil war, severely limiting the country’s ability to respond. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights first reported outbreaks in the Damascus, Homs, Tartus, and Latakia governorates on March 10, 2020. Although state media highlighted initial distributions of protective gear for medical staff, testing data was not disclosed, and healthcare capacity remained critically low. By late 2021, official figures recorded 57,441 cases and 3,164 deaths, but the World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF estimated actual cases to be far higher due to testing shortages.
The government reportedly restricted information sharing, issuing gag orders for healthcare providers and controlling COVID-related narratives. Travel between Syria and Iran, one of the region's first outbreak centers, fueled public concern, as Iranian cases surged early in the pandemic. Syria’s weakened healthcare system, already reliant on foreign aid, faced a dire shortage of beds, ventilators, and oxygen. Particularly high infection rates emerged among young adults, with 44% of hospitalized cases in Afrin affecting people aged 16-40.
In April 2021, Syria began vaccine distribution through the COVAX initiative, receiving AstraZeneca doses from international donors. The government later approved Russia’s Sputnik V vaccine, prioritizing healthcare workers, the elderly, and individuals with chronic illnesses.
International & Regional Issues Resources
Economy
Syria’s economy has been impacted by over a decade of conflict, widespread displacement, and infrastructure destruction. Syria used to be a largely self-sufficient middle-income country with a diverse economy based on agriculture, oil, and tourism. Syria now faces deep economic challenges, exacerbated by international sanctions, currency devaluation, and inflation.
Currency Crisis and Hyperinflation
Syria’s currency, the Syrian pound (SYP), has experienced extreme devaluation since the conflict began, with inflation spiraling in recent years. In 2011, one U.S. dollar was worth about 47 SYP; by 2023, it exceeded 15,000 SYP on the black market. This hyperinflation has severely reduced the purchasing power of ordinary Syrians, leading to widespread impoverishment. According to a World Bank report, prices for basic commodities have increased by over 800% since the conflict began International Isolation.
Unemployment
Unemployment in Syria remains high, with about 50% of the workforce estimated to be unemployed or underemployed. Many industries, particularly manufacturing and agriculture, have been disrupted by the war. The collapse of agricultural production has affected rural livelihoods, as well as food security, contributing to rising malnutrition and reliance on humanitarian aid. The World Food Programme estimates that over 12 million Syrians are food insecure, with many households spending nearly all their income on food.
Oil and Natural Resources
Before the conflict, oil exports accounted for about 20% of Syria’s GDP. However, many of Syria’s oil fields are located in the northeast, where the Syrian government has lost control to Kurdish-led forces. This has led to a substantial decline in oil production, from 385,000 barrels per day in 2010 to an estimated 24,000 barrels in 2022, with oil revenue diverted from the central government to local authorities in the northeast.
Increasing Poverty and Inequality
The economic situation in Syria is worrying, with over 90% of Syrians now living below the poverty line. Essential goods and services are increasingly out of reach for much of the population, and there is a widening economic disparity as those connected to the government or elite circles maintain some wealth, while the general population faces extreme deprivation.
Economy Resources
Society
Population and Demographics
In 2024, Syria’s population is estimated to be approximately 24.7 million, reflecting ongoing challenges in accurately tracking demographics amid the complex circumstances following over a decade of civil war. Syria’s population is young, with more than 50% under the age of 25, with a life expectancy of about 71 years. The growth rate has significantly declined due to conflict-related factors, which include emigration, displacement, and lower birth rates. Around 56% of Syrians live in urban areas, with the remainder in rural settings, though displacement has shifted these demographics.
Ethnic Groups and Religion
The Syrian population is largely Arab (90%), with Kurdish communities making up approximately 9%. Other ethnic minorities include Armenians, Turkmen, and Assyrians. Religion plays a big role in Syria’s society, with Islam as the dominant faith. Sunnis form the largest group, but there are also significant communities of Alawites, Druze, and Christians, including Greek Orthodox, Armenian Apostolic, and other denominations. Islam is not the state religion in Syria, however, the constitution does specify that the president must be Muslim, and Islamic law influences parts of the legal system.
Family and Community Life
Family is central to Syrian society, and traditional extended families are common, especially in rural areas. Elders are highly respected, and family decisions often involve the extended family. Marriage and family life are integral to social structure, with arranged marriages still practiced in some areas, though individual choice is increasingly accepted in urban centers. Community bonds are strong, with social life centered around family gatherings, communal meals, and religious celebrations, such as Eid and Christmas for Christians.
Education
Syria has an overall literacy rate of 84%, with higher rates among men (91.7%) than women (81%). Education is free and compulsory up to the ninth grade. At the end of high school, students take a rigorous baccalaureate exam, which influences their university options and field of study. The country has several major universities, including the University of Damascus and the University of Aleppo, though conflict has disrupted schooling and damaged educational infrastructure. In 2023, 2.4 million children were out of school, with another 1.35 million at risk of dropping out. Over one-third of schools are either damaged or in use for non-educational purposes.
Women in Society
Syrian women’s roles vary widely, influenced by rural-urban divides, socio-economic status, and cultural norms. Women are active in the workforce, education, and health sectors, though traditional expectations around family life persist, particularly in rural areas. Legal protections for women exist, but implementation can be inconsistent, and cultural and societal expectations often shape women’s lives more strongly than the legal framework. Syria’s decade-long conflict has exacerbated challenges for women, who face displacement, poverty, and increased gender-based violence. Economic pressures force many women into precarious jobs or early marriage. The UN also highlights that 80% of displaced Syrians are women and children, with limited access to services and protection.
Society Resources
LGBT+ Issues
In Syria, LGBT+ people face oppression under both state and societal frameworks. Homosexuality has been illegal since 1949, punishable by imprisonment or corporal punishment in areas controlled by extremist groups. As of 2004, it is legal to change gender, but requires gender reassignment surgery. However, deeply entrenched social stigma fosters fear, marginalization, and in some cases, violence from families and communities. These risks push many LGBT+ Syrians to seek asylum abroad.
LGBTQ+ Resources
Religion
Syria has a diverse religious landscape, including a variety of sects within Islam, Christianity, and smaller groups. Sunni Islam represents approximately 74% of the population, followed by various Shia branches, including Alawites, who form about 13%. The Druze community makes up around 3%. Christians—primarily Antiochian Orthodox, Catholics, Syrian Orthodox, and Nestorian Assyrians—represent a smaller but historically significant group, with many concentrated in urban areas like Damascus, Aleppo, and Homs.
Although Syria’s government constitutionally upholds freedom of religion, the civil war and rise of militant groups have severely impacted religious minority communities, with groups such as ISIS targeting religious minorities and Muslims they consider apostates. This targeting, combined with general wartime instability, has led to emigration among minorities, including Christians and the remaining Jewish community, who have largely relocated from Aleppo and other areas due to the conflict.
Religion Resources
Culture
General Information
Syria’s culture is rooted in its long history and geographic position as a bridge between the Mediterranean, the Arab world, and Asia. Its traditions reflect the influences of diverse civilizations, including the ancient Phoenicians, Romans, Umayyads, Ottomans, and French. Syria’s rich cultural heritage is seen in its art, music, cuisine, and architecture, blending Arab, Mediterranean, and Ottoman styles. The civil war has also greatly impacted the country’s cultural landscape, since many artists, musicians, and intellectuals fled. However, cultural practices continue to play a strong role in Syrian identity, both inside and outside the country.
Art
Syria, as part of the Cradle of Civilization, hosted countless peoples and cultures whose legacies helped shape modern Syrian character and identity. Renowned artifacts are preserved in institutions like the National Museum of Damascus and the Aleppo Museum. The most popular part of the National Museum is the reconstruction of the 2nd century CE Dura-Europos synagogue, while the Aleppo Museum is famous for its grand entrance featuring a female sphinx from the Iron Age Neo-Hittite settlement of Tell Halaf (9th century BCE). However, many museums have been looted and numerous historic sites such as the ancient city of Palmyra have been destroyed during the civil war.
Much of Syria’s contemporary art mixes traditional Islamic themes and techniques with Western influences. Initiatives like the Creative Syria project was established by the Syrian Culture, Arts, and History Center, and was established to help promote prominent Syrian artists. The project showcases top calligraphers such as Mohamed Kanou, photographers like Issa Touma, and painters like Sara Shamma and Boutros Almaari. Unfortunately, the civil war has forced many contemporary artists and musicians out of the country, and some of them now reside in nearby Lebanon, continuing to produce works of art detailing the Syrian struggle, keeping Syria’s cultural voice alive.
Traditional art forms such as calligraphy and intricate tile work also remain integral to Syrian cultural identity, widely visible in its historical mosques and public buildings. Despite the challenges of recent years, Syrian art reflects a rich and adaptive cultural expression resilient through time.
Art Resources
Food
Syrian cuisine is a blend of Arabic, Mediterranean, and Levantine traditions. Core ingredients include olive oil, bulgur, lentils, chickpeas, yogurt, and spices such as cumin, sumac, and za’atar. Bread, particularly flatbreads like khubz, is a staple, often used to scoop up dips and salads.
Popular dishes include kibbeh, made from bulgur and ground meat, formed into different shapes and served with yogurt; fatteh, a layered dish of bread, yogurt, and meat; mahshi, vegetables stuffed with rice and meat; fattoush, a salad of tomatoes, cucumber, radish, and baked bread slices. Mezze dishes, like hummus, baba ganoush, and tabbouleh, are common, offering small plates full of fresh flavors and textures.
Sweets are also an important part of Syrian cuisine, with desserts like baklava, ma’amoul, and halva. Hospitality is central to Syrian food culture, with meals shared in family and communal settings, reflecting the social nature of food in Syria.
Food Resources
Literature & Film
Literature
Syria’s literary traditions are reflections of historical patterns in the region as well as responses to the political state of the region during the modern day. While Syrian literature can not be viewed as a singular entity separated from the broader realm of Middle Eastern literature, several prominent authors of Syrian origin have produced notable works. Syrian literature dates back to ancient oral storytelling, later flourishing through Arabic poetry, Islamic prose, and Sufi mysticism. Syrian poets and authors have often explored themes of love, identity, and social justice, using literature as a vehicle for political expression
Prominent 20th-century Syrian writers include Nizar Qabbani, known for his sensual poetry and feminist themes. Some of his famous poems include “A Brief Love Letter” and “Damascus, What are You Doing to Me?” Another well known author is Zakaria Tamer, renowned for his dark, allegorical short stories. His most well known contributions are in the realm of children’s literature. Some of his most prominent works include Breaking Knees: Modern Arabic Short Stories from Syria and Tigers on the Tenth Day and Other Stories.
A notable female writer in the realm of Middle Eastern literature, Ghada Al-Samman is known for both her fiction and non-fiction work in the form of short stories, books, and journalism that have been translated into multiple languages including English and French. Her work is largely a response to political questions and troubles in the region, with a specific focus on corruption and treatment of women. Her notable works include her book, “Beirut ‘75” and “The Night of the First Billion”.
The civil war has deeply affected contemporary literature, with writers both within Syria and abroad addressing themes of exile, trauma, and resilience. Some notable contemporary authors continue to write about Syrian identity and the impacts of conflict, preserving cultural memory amidst turmoil. The diaspora has allowed Syrian literature to gain international readership, showcasing Syria’s complex realities and cultural legacy.
Film
Also Syrina cinema is largely shaped by social and political themes. The Syrian film industry started in the 1960s, largely driven by the National Film Organization, a government-backed initiative that produced films with a focus on national identity, social struggles, and anti-imperial themes. Early filmmakers like Nabil Maleh and Omar Amiralay pioneered a realist approach, addressing poverty and political issues.
In recent years, the civil war has spurred a wave of films focusing on the human cost of conflict. Documentaries such as For Sama (2019) and The Cave (2019) captured international attention with their harrowing portrayals of life in war-torn Syria. Fictional narratives like The Other Side of Hope reflect both the plight and resilience of Syrians, often made by directors working in exile. This new wave of Syrian cinema highlights the intense personal and collective challenges faced by Syrians, as well as their stories of endurance, courage, and identity.
Literature & Film Resources
Clothing
Traditional attire varies by region, with influences from Arab, Ottoman, and Kurdish styles. Men often wear the thobe, a long white or beige tunic, paired with head covering like the keffiyeh or taqiyah. Women’s traditional clothing includes the abaya or kaftan, with intricate embroidery that varies by area. These garments are typically made from cotton or silk and feature vibrant designs.
In more urban areas, Western-style clothing is more common, although traditional attire is often worn during festivities and religious events. Some Syrians still wear handwoven agal belts or abaya-like outer garments, especially for formal occasions. The mix of traditional and modern styles in Syria showcases the blend of historical influences with contemporary global fashion trends.
Clothing Resources
Music
Syria’s musical heritage blends ancient traditions with modern influences, evolving through folk and religious music, classical Arabic forms, and popular styles.Folk music permeates Syrian culture and is often used to celebrate weddings or the birth of a child. The typical folk music style is called muwashshhaat. This style features classical Arabic poetry which is sung while playing instruments like the oud (lute), kamenjah (spike fiddle), and daf (tambourine). This is sometimes accompanied by dabkeh, a popular line dance during which each dancer stomps his feet in rhythmic steps.
Syrian music is sometimes played in tandem with displays from the region’s Sufi Islamic religious orders. The Whirling Dervishes, a popular order of Sufi Islam in the Levant region, are known for performing fast spinning dances while wearing long, white robes. These groups often perform in public squares and are a popular exhibit for tourists.
Alongside muwashshah and Sufi performances, Syrian classical music incorporates poetic forms like qasidah, using instruments such as the oud, qanun, and ney to create rich, intricate melodies.
In recent decades, Syria has also nurtured a modern music scene, with genres like pop, rock, and rap emerging, often in response to social and political shifts. Syria has a number of pop stars, residing both in the country and abroad such as George Wassouf and Bashar Moussa. Wassouf played for his first wedding party at the age of 12, and has released over 30 albums to date. The Syrian Civil War has had an impact on the dynamic of Syrian music as both sides have begun using music to champion their cause. The Syrian government has utilized patriotic songs, such as, “I am Syrian, God is on my side.” On the opposition side, a previously unknown musician named Hamwee Ibrahim Qashoosh released a song called “Yalla irhal ya Bashar” (“Get Out, Bashar”). The song mixes traditional dabkeh music with verses denouncing the Syrian government. This contemporary expansion highlights Syria’s resilient and adaptive cultural identity, fusing traditional and global influences across genres.
Music Resources
Sites & Places of Interest
Ancient Cities
Known as the world’s oldest continually inhabited city, Damascus is the heart of Syrian history and culture. The Old City, with its winding alleys and ancient architecture, houses the famous Umayyad Mosque, blending Roman and Islamic styles and is revered as one of Islam’s earliest mosques.
Despite recent conflict-related damage, Aleppo remains one of Syria's iconic ancient cities. Its Citadel of Aleppo is a historic fortress dating back to the 3rd millennium BCE and showcases Islamic and medieval architecture. The city’s Old Souks were once among the Middle East's largest covered markets, selling everything from spices to textiles.
Roman Ruins
Syria has an impressive cultural heritage. Extensive archaeological activity in the area has revealed countless sites dating back to the third millennium BCE and to more recent Islamic times. Some of the most ancient cities include Ebla, Ugarit, and Mari dating back to the Bronze Age (3600-1200 BCE). From the Greek and Roman periods, Palmyra, Apamea, and Bosra are by far the most famous. Clashes between the Islamic State and opposition forces have destroyed numerous ancient cities in both Syria and Iraq. According to a 2014 New York Times article about the civil war’s impact on Syrian culture, “Officials at Unesco, the United Nations agency that works to protect historic places, have classified as endangered all six of Syria’s World Heritage sites, including Palmyra.” Continued fighting, however, has prevented UNESCO from inspecting the damage in person.
Crusader Castles
Syria is also known for its group of Crusader castles built along the coastline, especially the Krak des Chevaliers which remains mostly intact. Interestingly, T.E. Lawrence visited and wrote his thesis about these medieval castles before he was known throughout the world as Lawrence of Arabia. Many of these locations were popular tourist destinations prior to the Syrian Civil War. Since 2011, tourism has completely ceased in Syria and most nations are imposing heavy travel restrictions to the war-torn country.
Byzantine Ruins
A collection of abandoned Byzantine-era towns, the Dead Cities lie in northern Syria and provide insight into early Christian communities. The stone churches, houses, and public buildings remain largely intact, offering a rare look at Byzantine architecture and rural life from over a millennium ago.
Sites & Places of Interest Resources
Sports
Soccer, swimming, and tennis are very popular in Syria. Soccer is particularly popular and children can often be seen playing it in streets and parks. The Syrian national team, the Red Eagles, has participated in several international competitions; however, the team has had little success. The Red Eagles have competed in five Asian Cups, but each time failed to advance past the quarterfinals round. Syria has never made it to the FIFA World Cup finals, only reaching the final qualifying round in 1986, and losing to Iraq.
Syria has never competed in the Winter Olympic Games, but has sent athletes to every Summer Games since 1976. Syria has won an Olympic silver medal for wrestling in 1984 and a bronze medal for boxing in 2004. During the Atlanta games in 1996, female athlete Ghada Shouaa won the gold medal in the Heptathlon. 2 Syrian swimmers, Yusra Mardini and Rami Anis, were selected as part of a 10 member refugee team to compete at the 2016 Rio Summer Olympics.
Sports Resources
Latest News & Commentary on Syria
- Syrian National Council
- Thawra Online
- Al Watan
- Middle East Institute (MEI) Syria Updates
- Syria Deeply
- Hyperlinks to non-native new outlets (e.g. NYT)
Syrian News Outlets
- Syrian Arab News Agency (SANA) - Overseen by the Ministry of Information, it is the official state-controlled media outlet of the Syrian government.
- ANHA Hawar News Agency - Officially independent of the Syrian state, it is affiliated with the Democratic Union Party (PYD) and the wider Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (AANES).
- Al-Watan - A privately-owned pro-government newspaper based in Damascus, which covers a mix of news, cultural programs, and music, with a government-aligned stance.
- Sham FM - A popular radio station broadcasting from Damascus, covering a mix of news, cultural programs, and music, with a government-aligned stance.
- Orient News - An independent outlet with an anti-government stance, broadcasting from abroad, often covering Syrian opposition perspectives.
- Enab Baladi - A Syrian independent, community-oriented media platform founded by Syrian activists, offering news on political, social, and cultural issues from a critical perspective of the government.
- Syria Direct - A nonprofit news organization providing in-depth, investigative reports on Syria, often focusing on human rights, conflict, and displaced communities.