Iran

Iran (pronunciation: ih-rahn) is dominated by rugged mountains, high basins (visit this link to learn about the difference between a valley and a basin), and desert, offering a unique and diverse geography ranging from snowy mountainous regions and hot and dry plains to subtropical lowlands. It borders seven countries and two large coastlines. In the west, it shares its longest border with Iraq and smaller ones with Turkey, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. To Iran’s north is the Caspian Sea and to its south are the Arab-Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz, and the Gulf of Oman, which leads out to the Arabian Sea and the larger Indian Ocean. In the East, Iran borders Pakistan, Afghanistan and Turkmenistan. Iran’s geographic features have protected it from invaders over the years while also dictating the country’s political ambitions.

Iran has several prominent topographic features. It has two high mountain ranges, the Zagros and the Elburz. The Zagros range runs along most of Iran’s western edge while the Elburz range runs east to west, between the Caspian Sea and Iran’s capital, Tehran. The Elburz includes Iran’s highest mountain, Mount Damavand, at over 18,000 feet. Between the Caspian Sea and the Elburz Mountains is subtropical lowland.

The majority of Iran’s population lives among the mountains, as the country’s lowlands are difficult to live in. These lowlands include two desert plateaus — the Dasht-e Kavir (Salt Desert) and the Dasht-e Lut — with conditions so harsh that they are virtually uninhabitable. Because of this, approximately 70 million Iranians are mountain-dwellers; even the capital city of Tehran sits in the foothills of large mountains. 

Iran’s mountainous terrain serves to both protect and stifle the country. Iran is extraordinarily difficult to conquer, given that the mountains effectively deflect intrusions from nearly every direction. Only the Mongols under Genghis Khan were able to conquer the Persian heartland. While Iran remains relatively insulated from external threat, its progress is impeded by the isolating, mountainous fortress. Its desire to control and inhabit the plains of Iraq would require mobilizing an army through the Zagros mountains; this would be difficult without the cooperation of the Iraqis. Furthermore, the mountains create internal issues for Iran by clustering and dividing different ethnic and religious groups. Because these groups are hidden away in the mountains, it is an ongoing challenge to assimilate them into the Persian majority. So, it is necessary for Iran to have a strong central government to prevent separatist movements; all this just because of some mountains.  

Iran’s geography also informs its economy. Because of the country’s famous mountains, transportation is costly. Even though Iran has the third-largest oil reserves in the world, oil cannot overcome the geographic isolation and difficulties of having a mountainous population. Despite its oil, Iran’s is not an economic powerhouse like its neighbor Saudi Arabia. It is difficult for Iran to develop more advanced infrastructure because of the absence of flat, inhabitable plains.

The harsh geography and location of the country contributes to its political ambitions. Iran has long held an interest in controlling Iraq (more on this below in International & Regional Issues), and part of that is because Iraq has plenty of flat, workable, and livable land. Iraq was once part of the Persian empire, and during that time Iraq’s fertile plains were the foundation of the empire. If Iran were to reclaim this land, it would be a huge boost to their geopolitical and economic power.

Iran faces several environmental problems. Like many of its neighbors, many parts of Iran suffer from a lack of drinking water, either because of the arid climate of its desert plateaus or due to water pollution. Iran is also prone to frequent droughts in some areas and flooding in others as well as dust/sand storms and earthquakes. Zabol, a city in eastern Iran near the Afghan border, has previously ranked as one of the most polluted cities in the world.

The territory that Iran occupies has a long and rich history filled with empires, battles, cultural achievements and events that changed the world. The area was originally ruled by the Medes, an ancient Indo-Iranian (Aryan) people who inhabited an area known as Media in the western and northwestern portions of present day Iran from 678 BCE-549 BCE. Persian King Cyrus the Great conquered the territory as he was expanding his empire. Alexander the Great helped conquer the Persian Empire, succeeding Darius III as the empire’s king. The next several decades were a time of many rulers, but it was also the time in which Iran rose to prominence in the scientific and cultural arena. The ancient Silk Road ran through its territories, allowing for such things as porcelain and silk from China to be brought to Europe, while also facilitating the exchange of knowledge, religion, technology and culture. Iran fell to the control of Arab Muslims in 1502 and it has remained under Muslim influence since; however, during World War I, both Russia and England tried to occupy the land due to its strategic location.

The Islamic Republic of Iran was formed in 1979 after the Iranian Revolution, a short conflict in which the Iranian monarchy was overthrown and replaced by a theocracy. The revolution was led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a popular Shia cleric (Ulema), who then became its first leader, a position referred to as Supreme Leader.

The overthrow of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi in 1979 and the ascendance of Saddam Hussein in Iraq added to tensions that had been building between the two countries over their national borders on the Shatt al-Arab waterway. When Hussein ordered his military across the Iranian border in September 1980, it sparked a decade-long conflict that killed or wounded over 1 million soldiers and civilians and economically crippled both nations. Despite Iraq’s pro-Soviet tendencies, the United States and most Gulf nations supported Hussein over the staunchly anti-Western Iranian regime under Ayatollah Khomeini. The United States and Gulf nations supplied weapons to Iraq’s military and the U.S. Navy participated in limited naval warfare campaigns against Iran following repeated Iranian attacks on Gulf oil tankers.

The Iraqi military used chemical attacks against Iran during the ongoing war. Iran reciprocated by capturing the southern Al-Faw Peninsula, which was the main point of Iraqi access to the Shatt al-Arab waterway. The war finally ended in 1987 with the signing of United Nations Security Council Resolution 598. This resolution effectively returned both countries to their pre-war borders, with very few gains on either side. Despite the resolution, tensions between the two countries remained high throughout the 1990s and early 2000s.

Iranians once again took to the streets for democratic rights in 2009 with the Green Movement. The next presidential election was scheduled for June 12, and the victory was expected to go to the incumbent president, Ahmadinejad. But a new character stepped into the race: Mir Hossein Mousavi, a former prime minister. Mousavi energized Iran’s emerging civil society, reformers, the women’s movement, and students, and he was met with large crowds to cheer him on. But the results of the election told a different story — Ahmadinejad had won by a landslide. Mousavi and others said the election was rigged to keep Ahmadinejad in power. Hundreds of thousands filled the streets of Iran wearing green, the color of a sash that had been given to Mousavi by former president Muhammad Khatami. These groups were met by security forces sent to deter them. Green Movement leaders were subjected to show trials by the government. Any newspapers, magazines, or websites that supported the Green Movement were shut down. Government response halted the movement’s momentum in 2010, but many still hope for its return and democratic reform.

Iran is a theocratic republic. The country has regular elections, but they are closely ruled over by the top clergy. Moderates have often won powerful positions, which shows that Iranians do want a choice in their political affairs and that the government is not wholly conservative or radical.

As an Islamic republic, Islam is infused into much of society. Its legal system is based on Sharia, or Islamic law. People often believe that the Iranian president is the leading figure in power; however, the most powerful person in Iran is the Supreme Leader who is also the leading religious leader. He has the last say in all internal and external matters and appoints many powerful positions, including commanders of the military. The Supreme Leader is selected for a lifetime term by Assembly of Experts, a group of leading Islamic scholars (mujtahid) who are elected by popular vote. The Iranian president and the single legislative body, the Consultative Assembly, are also elected by popular vote.

Political parties are a relatively new phenomenon in Iran, and traditionalists still prefer to work through pressure groups. The party system in Iran is unique in that parties often form prior to elections and disband soon thereafter. Iran has two major political ideologies: traditional conservative religious side and reform-minded. Recently, these two sides have increasingly become at odds with one another, leading the reformers to stage mass protests against the conservatives in power.

Ali Khamenei is the current Supreme Leader, a position held since 1989. Hassan Rouhani, the current president of Iran, was elected in 2013. The previous president, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, took advantage of his image as a modest, simple man, and drew significant attention and often ire from the rest of the world for his rhetoric. In 2002, former U.S. President George W. Bush labeled Iran a member of “Axis of Evil” — along with Iraq and North Korea — and accused it of supporting terrorism and seeking weapons of mass destruction (WMDs).

The Revolutionary Guard

The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps is the country’s most powerful security and military organization. Established after the 1979 revolution by Ayatollah Khomeini, its sole purpose is to protect the regime. This role has become increasingly important as the ayatollah’s authority declined amid new calls for political reform. The IRGC also is responsible for executing war plans in the event of a military attack from an enemy country, such as Israel. It is divided into land, sea, and air forces, with up to  150,000 members who are primarily apportioned to the land branch. Within the IRGC, there are several branches. The secretive Qods Force carries out Iran’s proxy warfare strategies, training and arming such groups as Hezbollah and Hamas. Another notable organization under the IRGC is the Basij Resistance Force, which is a paramilitary auxiliary force that maintains internal security and has steadily gained power since uprisings of the 2009 Green Movement.

In addition to its conventional military role, the IRGC wields tremendous economic power through its affiliate companies, which are involved in many sectors of Iran’s economy and  it dominates everything from construction to banking and finance. The IRGC has actually benefited from Iran’s sanctioned economic climate, standing tall over its competitors because of its ability to secure government contracts.

The Nuclear Issue

Iran, much maligned for its nuclear weapon aspirations, finally struck a peaceful agreement with other world powers in 2016 with the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, or simply the Nuclear Deal. With this deal, Iran’s nuclear program is expected to exist only as a peaceful resource. All previously existing facilities for building a nuclear arsenal are to be converted for scientific research, and low-enriched uranium stockpiles would be reduced by 98%. Iran also agreed to supervision by the International Atomic Energy Agency. With these new restrictions, Iran’s “breakout” time, the amount of time to produce bomb-grade material for one nuclear weapon, has been extended to at least one year instead of the current 2-3 months. In exchange for these concessions, the rest of the world will lift some of the economic restrictions, or embargoes, that have been in place for decades. Iran will receive access to billions in frozen assets, and its economy will recover from its prolonged isolation.

Relationship with the United States

Coming soon

Regional Dynamics

Iran enjoys a certain regional influence, and it actively seeks to preserve its interests, even if those interests are in other countries. Iranian officials openly claim to control four Arab capitals: Beirut, Damascus, Baghdad, and Sanaa. Through its meddling in other states’ domestic affairs, Iran has facilitated the progression of several deadly area conflicts. Here are a few of the times it has reached across borders.

Iraq: Iran supported the former prime minister of Iraq, Nouri al-Maliki, who was elected in 2006 after the American-led coalition that had invaded in 2003 allowed Iraq to select its own government. It was Iran’s support that allowed Maliki to stay in office after a weak 2010 election, and pressure from Tehran often determined his agenda, such as blocking negotiations with Obama from succeeding or allowing Iranian planes in Iraqi airspace en route to Syria. Maliki’s rule heightened sectarian tensions in the region because of his Shia affiliation. He was succeeded in 2014 by Haider al-Abadi who made determined efforts to increase Sunni participation in the Iraqi government. Under his rule, the state-sponsored umbrella organization known as the Popular Mobilization Forces (PMF) helped defeat the Islamic State in Iraq. The PMF was composed of some 40 militias that were predominantly Shia Muslim groups, but also including Sunni Muslim, Christian, and Yazidi soldiers as well. hat the PMF was receiving financial support from Iran and some its members were loyal to Iranian clerics. In 2018, the PMF was officially made part of the Iraqi military and Abadi issued “regulations to adapt the situation of the Popular Mobilization fighters,” giving them ranks and salaries equivalent to other branches of the Iraqi military. The United States has persistently pressured Baghdad to distance itself from Iran and urged it to dismantle the PMF. With the election of another Shia politician, Adil Abdul-Mahdi, to the office of prime minister in October 2018, economic engagement with Iran has continued. In February 2019, during an official visit by an Iranian delegation, Mahdi announced that Iraq would not be part of U.S. sanctions against Iran or any other people.

The Trump administration has urged Iraq to stop buying energy from Iran – its sole foreign supplier. The pressure on Iraq is part of the administration’s push on Iraq to use sanctions to weaken Iran’s economy and prompt political or policy change. Administration officials aim to coerce Iranian leaders to fully dismantle their nuclear and ballistic missile programs and curb their support for Shiite Arab militias in the Middle East. Currently, Iraq has a waiver that allows it bypass the sanctions on Iranian oil exports to zero, but they gave leeway to some countries when imposing sanctions in November. The State Department and Treasury has granted waivers to several countries – including Iraq, which received a 90-day extension in March 2019. The waiver stipulates that the countries must take steps to reduce Iranian purchases and move towards ending imports. However, Iraq relies heavily on Iranian gas imports to feed its power grid and in April 2019, Iraq’s electricity ministry said it was planning to increase Iranian gas imports to from 28 million cubic meters to 35 million in June to meet the country’s needs.

Lebanon: Iran’s influence in Lebanon is also based on common sectarian bonds.

Oman: coming soon

Saudi Arabia: coming soon

Syria: Iran has had a constant ally in Syria since the 1979 revolution, mainly because Iran and Syria’s ruling family, the Alawites, are both adherents of Shia Islam. Historically, Syria has aided Iran in its regional interests in Iraq, Lebanon, and Palestine. Most recently, Iran has acted to support Bashar al-Assad’s regime in the midst of Syria’s Civil War, which began in 2011. Tehran has sent military advisors, equipment, and billions of dollars in aid. It has even assembled a fighting group called the National Defense Forces; made up of 80,000 Alawites, Shiites, and regime loyalists who fight alongside the Syrian army.

Yemen: Iran has been heavily involved in the ongoing civil war in Yemen between the government and the Houthi rebels, a group that practices Zaydi Shiism. Iran has provided money and training for the Yemeni rebels in order to wage proxy war with Saudi Arabia, its regional rival. Saudi Arabia has led a coalition of 10 Sunni nations in airstrikes against Houthi rebels, and has denounced Iran’s participation in the war. As recently as April of 2016, the U.S. Navy intercepted a shipment of arms from Iran bound for Yemen.

Iran’s population is as diverse as its geography. It has nine ethnic groups: Persian, Azeri, Gilaki, Mazandarani, Kurd, Turkmen, Arab, Lur and Balochi. For the most part, however, these groups are not meshed in one big melting pot, but rather occupy their own distinct communities in different regions of the country. By far, the Persians are the largest group accounting for over half the entire population. The Azeri make another quarter of the population, while the remaining 22 million people compose the rest of the ethnic groups.

In the southwestern province of Khuzestan which borders Iraq, the majority Arab population most of whom are based in the capital city, Ahvaz, have engaged in periodic separatist activities including several bombing attacks in 2005. The Ahvazi Arabs have made claims of discrimination and have been the subject of studies by such groups as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International.

A large majority of Iran’s population (over 45 million) lives in urban areas. It has seven cities with over one-million people. While Iran has a decent health care system that extends into the rural areas, it faces increases in air and water pollution, especially in urban areas. Iran’s growing urbanization will be a challenge for Iran’s future.

The wealth that oil has brought to Iran has enabled a virtually free and modern education system at all levels, from elementary school through university. The only stipulation at the university level, however, requires all students to serve the government for every year spent at the university. Iran’s education system, which was originally revamped in the early 1970s, has raised the literacy rate to around 87%. Iran’s biggest literacy challenge is to get education to be extended further into the many rural areas as well as to ensure that women are guaranteed a basic education.

Food

The national dish of Iran is the chelow kebab. Kebab is skewered, grilled meat while chelow is the Farsi word for rice. Grilled meats and vegetables feature heavily in Persian food, along with a variety of sauces, spreads or dips. Pomegranates and eggplants are frequently used in Persian food. Some of the spices that are common in Iranian cuisine are turmeric, parsley, fenugreek, mint and sumac. The rice that accompanies kebab, whether lamb, beef or chicken, is often served with butter and sumac to enhance the flavor.

Here are a few items you should order if you’re at a Persian restaurant. Khoresh is a generic term for Iranian stews, which typically consist of herbs, fruits, and meat pieces, flavored with tomato paste, saffron, and pomegranate juice. Iran produces 90% of the world’s saffron so it is a common spice in Iranian dishes. Ghormeh Sabzi is one kind of khoresh. This herby stew is thick and has a distinct green color from several of its ingredients, which include parsley, spinach, leeks, cilantro, kidney beans, dried limes and dried fenugreek leaves. It can be meatless or be made with seasoned lamb or beef.

Tadeeg means “bottom of the pot,” and is quite literally the rice that sticks – often somewhat burnt – to the bottom of the pot. This crispy layer has soaked up the caramelized saffron from the batch of rice and adds great texture to a meal. It’s especially good with the addition of zhoug, a chili paste with origins in Yemen, that is now ubiquitous in Middle Eastern cuisine. Trader Joe’s even has its own version!

What do Iranians drink? Tea, tea, and more tea. Yogurt is a staple and the main ingredient in doogh, a sour yogurt drink with mint and cucumbers. 

Clothing

Modest dress is expected; however, the Iranian fashion might be considered more “westernized” than many other Middle Eastern nations. Pants and tunics are common for females, as well as long dresses. The cultural revolution that coincided with the Islamic Revolution introduced guidelines on how women should appear when out in public; initially this was limited to women in government and academia. By 1984, it was decreed that all women must abide by the new dress code. The chador — a one-piece garment that goes over the head and upper, if not entire, body — became the norm. In intervening years, many women have transitioned to a very loose interpretation of the rule, using fashionable scarves that only partially cover the hair. 

Art

Iranians are famous for more than just Persian rugs; they also have developed beautiful paintings, calligraphy, pottery and metal and stone pieces. Up until the 1950s art could only be created for an academic purpose. This change happened after the death of the famous painter Kamal-ol-Molk, who symbolized the strict rules of academic paintings. While it is no longer created for purely academic purposes, it is still highly influenced by social and religious conditions. Paintings tend to portray people, rather than just landscapes.

Literature

Persian literature has been particularly marked by poetry. The first significant Persian poet was R?dak?. He flourished in the 10th century, when the S?m?nids were at the height of their power. His reputation as a court poet and as an accomplished musician and singer has survived, although little of his poetry has been preserved. 

Forugh Farrokhzad (1935-1967) is regarded by many as one of Iran’s most influential female poets of the 20th century. Her poetry was banned in Iran after the revolution for more than ten years. Written in Persian, her work is acclaimed for its daring expression of the hidden emotions of Iranian women. Her works have been translated into Arabic, English, French, German, and Russian amongst other languages. Farrokhzad’s most famous work is Let Us Believe in the Beginning of the Cold Season (1974), which was published after her death.

Sadegh Hedayat (1903-1951) is celebrated as one of the greatest Iranian writers of the early 20th century. Hedayat was born in Tehran to an upper class family, and was given the opportunity to travel to Europe at a young age, studying in both Belgium and France. Inspired by western literature and also by Iran’s history and folklore, Hedayat’s works are renowned for criticizing religion and its major influence on Iranian life. Writing in a range of forms including short stories, plays, critical essays and novels, Hedayat’s most famous work is The Blind Owl  from 1937, woven together with thought provoking symbols that explore Hedayat’s national and spiritual condemnation, as well as the isolation he felt due to alienation from his peers.

Film

Post-revolutionary Iran has a robust film and cinema industry. Several of its art films have garnered international acclaim because of the creative ways directors employ to address sensitive social issues in order to circumvent government censorship. The more personal and private themes of divorce, infertility, prostitution, single motherhood, child abuse, infidelity, gender inequality, and male-female relationships in general are often explored quite frankly. Iranian directors are also known for using humor and surrealism to portray the absurdity of everyday life in a heavy-handed theocratic state. Some of the most successful directors include Abbas Kiarostami, Majid Majidi, and Asghar Farhadi, whose film The Salesman won the 2016 Academy Award for Best Foreign language film. Often featured at international festivals; several films can be found listed on TeachMideast here.

Iran is the home to one of the oldest known civilizations and has been left with numerous historical sites. Evidence of the country’s rich history can be seen in its ancient cities and in the artifacts housed in museums. Altogether, Iran hosts 19 UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

The ruins of Persepolis, which was the center of power and grandeur of the Persian Empire, is located near the city of Shiraz. Persepolis is the Greek name for “City of the Persians”. Persepolis was the capital of the Achaemenid dynasty, and King Darius the Great ruled the Persian Empire from the city between 522-486 BCE. Its ruins are among the best known and most visited archaeological sites in the world. When you visit the site today you will see the massive columns and former palaces, innumerable reliefs depicting nationalities that once walked through there, and three sepulchers on the hillside behind the ruins, as well as the Gate of All Nations. Persepolis became a World Heritage site in 1979.

The Golestan Palace was the seat of government for the Qajar dynasty. The architecture is a mix of early Persian design and European influence. The palace holds pools, green spaces, and mosaic facades as well as masterpieces from painter Kamal ol-Molk. Golestan Palace became a world heritage site in 2013. The palace is located right by Tehran’s grand bazaar.

Iran has also built modern structures and cultural centers that bridge the traditional and modern cultures, such as Tehran’s Azadi Tower. Through the links below you can read more about some of Iran’s most famous sites.

It is believed that polo first originated in Persia. The sport was popular among the aristocracy of Iran, and polo competitions are portrayed in many traditional Iranian paintings. The poet Firdowsi described royal polo tournaments in his 9th century epic, the Shahnameh. Since the 1979 Iranian revolution equestrian sports have declined in popularity, due to their association with the aristocracy.

Soccer, wrestling and bodybuilding are all popular sports in Iran, especially among the younger generations. Traditionally, freestyle wrestling was viewed as Iran’s national sport, but football (soccer) is by far the most popular sport today. The Iranian team has qualified for the World Cup several times and many Iranians play on European and American soccer teams. Iran’s female soccer team has had some issues participating in international events, due to FIFA’s regulations on headscarves. Particularly devastating was their automatic loss to Jordan in 2012 for an Olympic qualifying match, as FIFA barred them from playing minutes before the game started, due to their headscarves. Since 2014 FIFA has reversed this regulation, and women are once again allowed to participate in international tournaments with headscarves.

Iran has been successful at the Summer Olympic Games, winning several medals since they first entered the games in 1948. All of their medals have been won in wrestling, weightlifting, taekwondo, and athletics. Iran first took part in the Winter Olympics in 1956, and has since participated sporadically. The republic has not yet won a medal at the winter games. At the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro, Kimia Alizadeh Zenoorin became the first female Iranian athlete to win an Olympic medal when she won the bronze in taekwondo.