Country Overview
Population: 50,816,834
Population Growth Rate: 0.81%
Religious Groups Breakdown: Islam 90.7%, 5.4% Christian, and other traditional faiths.
Youth Unemployment: 18.27%
UNDP HDI: 170
Life Expectancy (Male Life Expectancy & Female Life Expectancy): 66.3, M: 63.5, F: 69.8
Literacy Rate (Male Literacy Rate & Female Literacy Rate): 60.7%, M: 65%, F: 56%
Primary School Completion Rate: 67%
Median Age: 18.4
Capital: Khartoum
Largest City:Khartoum
Nationality: Sudanese
Currency: Sudanese pound (SDG)
Languages: Arabic, English, and indigenous languages estimated at 114 while there are over 500 accents in the country
Agriculture:Main crops include cotton, peanuts (groundnuts), sesame, gum arabic, sorghum, and sugarcane.
Industries: Tourism, mining, oil, petroleum, manufacturing (plastic, electronics, medical).
Geography
Sudan is located in North-East Africa and is the third largest country on the continent. It used to be the largest country in Africa before South Sudan split off in 2011. Egypt is located on the north of the country, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia on the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic on the southwest, Chad to the west, and Libya to the northwest. Sudan’s capital and largest city is Khartoum, located in the middle of the country, where the Blue Nile and White Nile rivers intersect. The city is the biggest urban area in the country and also the center of commerce as well as the governmental city. The north of Sudan mainly consists of the desert and the Nile Valley, which creates habitable land, no more than two kilometers wide. To the east of the country is the Nubian Desert and in the west, the Libyan Desert and the Nuba mountains. There is barely any rainfall in these areas. The southern region, also known as ‘qoz’, consists of sandy dunes that in the rainy season are known as a more reliable water source. The country’s geography is diverse, greatly influencing its climate, economy, and settlement patterns. The Nile River, flowing northward through Egypt, is crucial for agriculture and human settlement. The deserts cover large areas with arid and barren landscapes. The plains stretch across central Sudan and are used for agriculture, especially for growing sorghum, millet, and other crops.
The name ‘Sudan’ comes from the Arabic expression ‘bilad al-sudan’, meaning ‘land of the blacks’, used by medieval Arab geographers. The term Sudan was considered pejorative until it was reclaimed in the twentieth century by anti-imperialist nationalists.
The climate in Sudan is arid with several deserts. Access to potable water remains a challenge for many inhabitants. The main water source in Sudan is the Nile, which originates in Sudan at the meeting of the White Nile and the Blue Nile and then flows northward to Egypt. The northern regions experience dry desert climates with barely any rainfall. In the south there’s a tropical climate with rainy seasons, more ideal for agriculture and forests. Central Sudan is known for its grasslands, used for pastoralism and farming. Mean annual temperatures vary between 26ºC and 32ºC across the country.
The country is rich in natural resources like oil, especially in the south, minerals, and fertile lands next to the Nile, all important for the country’s economy.
Climate Change
Sudan is a vulnerable country to climate variability and climate change, struggling with frequent droughts, high rainfall variability, while economically dependent on their natural resources. Sudan’s water, agriculture, coastal zone, and health sectors are most vulnerable to climate change. In North Darfur, reduced rainfall in combination with increasing water demand and land use, has contributed to desertification of millions of hectares and depletion of water sources. Ongoing conflicts in the region have caused the displacement of millions of Sudanese, living under conditions of persistent water and food insecurity. Rising temperatures will intensify droughts in the future, making previously arable land barren.
Agriculture, which employs about 80% of Sudan’s workforce and accounts for a large part of its economy, is increasingly threatened. Sudan relies heavily on the Nile River for agriculture and water supply. As temperatures rise and rainfall patterns shift, the river’s flow could become less predictable, potentially leading to disputes over water resources with neighboring countries like Egypt and South Sudan. Water scarcity has already led to displacement of communities. While drought is an important concern, increasing heavy rainfall is also a problematic foresight, particularly in the south. Seasonal floods displace thousands of people, destroy homes and infrastructure, and contaminate water supplies, further exacerbating humanitarian crises. Flooding and water scarcity can also lead to outbreaks of water-borne diseases, such as cholera, which are linked to poor sanitation and lack of clean water. Political instability and a struggling economy limit Sudan’s capacity to respond to climate change and makes the country increasingly dependent on international organizations for climate adaptation programs.
Geography Resources
History
Ancient Kingdoms and the Kingdom of Kush (1500 BCE – 3rd century CE)
The Kingdom of Kush, one of Africa's earliest empires, was founded around 1500 BCE. By the 8th century BCE, Kushite kings conquered Egypt, establishing the 25th Nubian dynasty. Meroe, the capital, remains an important archeological site with pyramids influenced by Egyptian culture. Between the 3rd century BCE and 3rd century CE, powerful queens (Candace) ruled, including Amanirenas, who famously resisted Rome and reached a peace settlement with Emperor Augustus.
Christian Nubia and the Afro-Byzantine Period (3rd – 11th century)
Between 638 and 641, the Arab Rashidun Caliphate conquered Egypt and attempted to take Nubia but was repelled, resulting in a unique non-aggression pact involving gift exchanges. This led to cultural blending, and Nubia absorbed significant Arab influence. From the mid-8th to the 11th century, Nubia saw a “Afro-Byzantine” period where Christianity thrived under a highly organized government similar to the Byzantine Empire. Nubians developed an alphabet based on Coptic letters and produced vibrant art. Women enjoyed high social status, with rights to education and property ownership.
Funj Sultanate and Spread of Islam (1504 – 1820)
From 1504 to 1820, the Funj Sultanate, an early Islamic state, played a central role in Sudan's Islamization. Early on, the Funj rulers converted to Islam, deepening the religious and cultural connections that persist today.
Turco-Egyptian Rule and the Mahdist Revolt (1820-1898)
The Ottoman Empire established Turco-Egyptian rule in northern Sudan, leading to social and economic shifts. In 1881, Muhammad Ahmad, declaring himself the Mahdi (messianic figure in Islam), led a popular revolt against foreign control. His forces captured Khartoum and beheaded British-appointed Governor-General Charles Gordon, a victory that marked a brief Mahdist state until the British returned in 1898.
British-Egyptian Condominium and Independence (1899-1956)
The Mahdist government lasted for eighteen years before the British returned. Under the British-Egyptian Condominium, Sudan was governed as separate northern and southern entities, sowing discord. Sudanese forces served in WWII, and postwar nationalist movements gained momentum. After the war, tensions grew as the British established the Jewish state of Israel in the Levant and halted the migration of Arab Muslims to the region. After Egypt renounced its claims to Sudan, the country gained independence in 1956. However, disputes between the Muslim north and mostly Christian south escalated, fueling internal conflicts.
Independence and Early Government (1955-1958)
Sudan gained its independence in 1955 in the postwar wave of anti-imperialism. There was no agreed-upon, permanent constitution. Instead, popularly elected representatives and appointed Senators elected a five-person Supreme Council who then appointed a Prime Minister. Isma’il Alazhari was the first Prime Minister of Sudan. Independence gave way to military coups, internal conflict, and prolonged civil war between the north and south. Sudan’s fledgling government struggled with corruption and was divided by internal factionalism between the predominantly Muslim north and the mostly Christian south, as well as between secularists and Islamists. Economic reliance on cotton exports left the country vulnerable. In 1958, following only three years of self-rule, a military coup replaced the civilian government.
The Abboud Regime and October Revolution (1958-1964)
After taking power, General Ibrahim Abboud banned political parties and implemented economic reforms, strengthening ties with Egypt and bolstering the cotton trade. However, dissent grew, especially as Abboud’s attempt to “Arabize” the south angered many. Civil dissatisfaction culminated in the October 1964 revolution, spurred by a brutal police attack on a student gathering at Khartoum University. Protests led Abboud to step down, and a civilian transitional government took over.
First Sudanese Civil War and Addis Ababa Agreement (1955-1972)
Simultaneously, Sudan faced a brutal civil war between the north and south over religious, ethnic, and political divides. The Addis Ababa Agreement in 1972 ended the conflict temporarily, granting limited autonomy to the south but restricting its military. Despite this brief peace, tensions continued under the centralized northern rule.
The Bashir Regime and Second Civil War (1989-2011)
General Omar al-Bashir seized power in a 1989 coup, establishing Islamist rule and imposing Sharia law, alienating Christians and other religious minorities. Tensions with the south reignited the civil war, partly fueled by the discovery of oil in the region. The 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement established a six-year autonomous period for the south, ultimately leading to the secession of South Sudan in 2011. Bashir and his Islamist government invited Osama bin Laden into the country. After attacks in the region by bin Laden and al-Qaeda, Sudan was sanctioned and put on the “State-Sponsored Terrorism” list by the United States. Bashir jailed dissenters and cracked down on anti-government groups. The International Criminal Court has issued warrants for al-Bashir’s arrest in 2009 and 2010. He is accused of crimes against humanity for his government’s actions during the civil war in Darfur. The ICC prosecutor argued that al-Bashir “masterminded and implemented a plan to destroy” several non-Arab ethnic groups in western Sudan.
Economic Hardship and the Fall of Bashir (2013-2019)
Following the loss of oil revenue from South Sudan’s independence, Sudan experienced high inflation and shortages of essential goods. Economic discontent led to mass protests, and in 2018, demonstrators called for Bashir’s resignation. Al-Bashir's regime responded with mass arrests and violence against opposition leaders. The protests culminated in April 2019 when a sit-in at the Sudanese Armed Forces compound led to al-Bashir's arrest. Subsequently, a power-sharing agreement was reached between civilian groups and the Transitional Military Council (TMC), forming the Sovereignty Council to oversee a transition to elections.
Military Coup and Ongoing Unrest (2021)
Tensions escalated in October 2021 when the TMC, led by General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, staged a coup just as they were set to transfer power to the civilian government led by Abdulla Hamdok. The coup sparked widespread protests and violent clashes with security forces, as civilians demanded a return to civilian rule.
2023 Civil War
In April 2023, a civil war erupted between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF), led by General al-Burhan and Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo (Hemedti), respectively. The conflict, stemming from power-sharing disputes, has caused severe humanitarian crises, with an estimated 9,000 civilian deaths and over 7 million displaced. Both factions have inflicted significant destruction, particularly in urban areas like Khartoum, with reports of ethnic cleansing and sexual violence, particularly against the non-Arab Masalit community in Darfur. Despite multiple ceasefire attempts, fighting continues unabated.
History Resources
Government
Sudan’s government is deeply fractured due to the ongoing war between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) led by general Abdel Fattah al-Burha and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) commanded by Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo, known as Hemedti. The power struggle between these two forces caused the current ongoing conflict that started in April 2023.
For thirty years, Sudan was under the authoritarian rule of Omar al-Bashir. However, he was ousted in April 2019 after a civilian uprising. After Bashir’s arrest, a transitional government was established, comprising both civilian and military leaders. They had the task of steering the country together towards democratic elections in 2022. The two sides signed a political agreement in July 2019, establishing a draft constitution. The agreement established the following: an 11-person Sovereignty Council of which six members were civilians and five were military officials, the military side would lead the Council for the first 21 months and the civilian side would assume control for the following 18 months leading up to the elections, a council of minister appointed by the civilian side, a ban on any Sovereignty Council members from running in the democratic elections, a legislative council, and establishing transitional judicial mechanisms. However, disagreements, along with the ambitions of Burhan and Hemedti, led to a coup in October 2021, bringing an end to the transitional government.
The SAF and RSF are currently key players in the country’s security apparatus. The two factions worked together in the beginning, however by 2022, tensions rose over how and when the RSF, a powerful paramilitary force formed from the Janjaweed militias responsible for the atrocities in Darfur, would be integrated into the national army. The RSF opposed the idea of being fully integrated in the national army, wanting to protect their autonomy and influence. In April 2023, these tensions triggered a complete war between the two factions, causing violent clashes all over the country.
The war has led to the collapse of basic government functions since both Burhan and Hemedti are controlling different institutions and territories. Many civilians, who have fought for a democratic transition, have been left between warring factions. Several international actors, like the African Union, the United Nations, and neighboring countries like Egypt, Chad, and Ethiopia, are involved in efforts to end the violence and restore governance. But peace talks have been difficult due to conflicting regional interests, divisions between the two factions, and lastly, the lack of a unified international strategy.
Government Resources
International & Regional Issues
April 2023 War and Ongoing Conflict
The ongoing civil war that erupted in April 2023 between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) has displaced millions, destabilized the country, and caused a refugee crisis. This has been affecting neighboring countries like South Sudan, Chad, and Egypt, by exacerbating already existing humanitarian challenges there.
Economic Challenges
The conflict has led to international sanctions limiting foreign investment and negatively impacting agricultural production. Following the fall of Omar al-Bashir, Sudan struggled to reintegrate into the international financial system, and the ongoing war has further deterred international aid and business.
Darfur Conflict
The long-running Darfur Conflict, which began in 2003, has displaced nearly two million people and caused tens of thousands of deaths. Traditionally framed as an ethnic dispute between Arabs and non-Arabs, the conflict involves various Black African groups, all of whom are predominantly Muslim. The fighting is distinct from the conflict leading to South Sudan's secession in 2011.
In 2019, a draft constitution mandated a resolution to the Darfur conflict within six months, leading to a peace treaty in August 2020 that promised Darfuri representation in government. However, violence persists in West Darfur. The ongoing civil war between Sudan’s military factions, particularly the SAF and RSF, has worsened the situation, with the RSF accused of committing atrocities and causing mass displacement.
As a result, over 610,000 Sudanese refugees have fled to countries like Chad, Ethiopia, and Egypt, while Sudan hosts around 507,000 refugees, mostly from South Sudan.
Refugees
There are more than 610, 000 Sudanese refugees in Chad, Ethiopia, C.A.R., Egypt, Kenya, and South Sudan; at the same time, Sudan hosts around 507,000 refugees, most from South Sudan (CIA, 2017).
Sudanese Foreign Relations
Al Bashir’s government historically had a strained relationship with the United States, but this shifted in 2017 when President Trump lifted many economic sanctions that had been in place since 1997. Following the 2021 coup, the U.S. froze all funding to the transitional government, redirecting aid to NGOs. The outbreak of war in 2023 has further complicated the situation, with the U.S. focusing solely on humanitarian assistance.
Khartoum has also leveraged its strategic position to improve relations with European nations. While the EU maintains sanctions against Sudan, it has indirectly provided approximately $131 million in aid in exchange for Sudan’s efforts to curb refugee flows to Europe. However, ongoing conflict has shifted the focus to humanitarian relief.
Sudan, which once supported Iran in the Saudi-Iranian rivalry, has shifted allegiance to Saudi Arabia, prompted by significant Saudi investments. Khartoum severed ties with Tehran in 2016 and has sent troops to support the Saudi-led coalition in Yemen.
Ethiopian Rift: Border and GERD
In December 2020, the Sudanese government evicted thousands of Ethiopian farmers from the al-Fashaga borderland, a crucial agricultural area for Ethiopia. In retaliation, Ethiopia sent troops to the border, leading to deadly clashes. Sudan claims this fertile land based on pre-colonial maps, and since 2007, both countries have jointly farmed it without conflict, although they have yet to establish official borders. The situation is precarious, with fears that minor skirmishes could escalate into a larger conflict, especially given Ethiopia's ongoing civil war involving Tigrayian rebels.
The border tensions are compounded by the issue of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD), a major project by Ethiopia on the Blue Nile. Sudan and Egypt, both downstream nations, have raised concerns over the dam's environmental impacts and are seeking a formal agreement on water sharing and storage limits. Despite ongoing military drills to assert readiness against unilateral action by Ethiopia, no agreement has been reached. The end of Ethiopia's civil war in November 2022 has not resolved the GERD dispute, and Sudan's current internal conflict further complicates its involvement in these negotiations.
Covid-19
Covid-19 posed severe challenges for Sudan, impacting the country’s healthcare system, the economy, and social structures. The country already had a fragile healthcare infrastructure, during covid-19, Sudan struggled to implement adequate testing and treatment. The vaccination process started in 2021, supported by COVAX and other international organizations. But the process was slow due to inefficient distribution because of logistical issues and public hesitancy. The country also struggled with worsened food insecurity and economic hardship. Frequent lockdowns disrupted the livelihoods of many, especially people working in informal economies, straining both urban and rural communities. Management of Covid-19 was further complicated by Sudan’s political situation, especially the 2021 coup and the ongoing civil war, which rerouted focus and resources away from pandemic recovery and healthcare improvements.
International & Regional Issues Resources
Economy
Most of the population, about 80 percent of the labor force earns their living through agriculture. Sudan’s most important agricultural product is Gum Arabic; it produces between 75 and 80 percent of the total world output. Other key products include sorghum, millet, wheat, peanuts, and sesame, along with livestock such as cattle and camels. Agriculture and livestock are vital, though these sectors are affected by climate change, drought, and conflict.
Sudan’s primary exports are gold, livestock, and agriculture like gum arabic, sesame seeds, and cotton. The country imports products like machinery, vehicles, manufactured goods, and medicine.
The secession of South Sudan in 2011 struck a serious blow to the Sudanese economy, stopping three-quarters of total oil production and consequently reducing the availability of foreign currency. The Sudanese pound was formally devalued in 2012, and the currency’s loss of value has continued steadily since, as has massive inflation. In 2018, the country faced serious cash shortage problems, with many banks and ATMs simply running out of money. The government has imposed strict withdrawal restrictions. Currently, at 68 percent, Sudan has one of the highest inflation rates in the world. The spike in inflation has coincided with steeply rising prices of most goods, including everyday food items, adding up to an economic crisis.
The problems with oil production and the value of the pound are exacerbated by conflict in various regions of the country and a lack of infrastructure for supporting industry. All in all, there is a serious economic crisis in Sudan. Although exact numbers are not known, the CIA estimates that in 2017, the unemployment rate was 19.6 percent. In 2014, the World Bank estimated that half of the population lives below the poverty line. With the ongoing conflict, Sudan’s economy remains in freefall, dependent on humanitarian aid amidst diminishing resources and international support.
Economy Resources
Society
Sudan’s society is diverse, shaped by a mix of ethnic, religious, and cultural influences. Sudan has an estimated population of approximately 45 million people, with hundreds of ethnic groups, including Arabs, Nubians, Beja, Fur, and Nuba, each contributing to Sudan’s rich cultural landscape. Sudanese culture blends Arab and African traditions, seen in music, dance, literature, and traditional dress, with art forms often influenced by religious and historical themes. The majority of the population practices Islam, primarily Sunni. But there’s also a small Christian group and there’s indigenous faith communities too. Arabic and English are the official languages of Sudan, though many ethnic groups speak regional languages, including Nubian and Beja dialects.
Family plays an important role in Sudanese society, with an emphasis on extended family and communal support. Social life in Sudan revolves around close-knit family units, with traditional family structures highly valued. Community-based customs, including tribal codes, continue to hold importance in rural areas, influencing social responsibilities, marriage practices, and conflict resolution.
According to the World Health Organization, life expectancy at birth is 63 for men and 67 for women. The population is quite young; the median age is 19, and 41 percent of the population is under 15.
Despite free and compulsory education in Sudan for ages 6 to 13, only about 60% of eligible children attend school, primarily due to economic constraints and regional disparities, especially in conflict-affected areas like Darfur and Kordofan. Attendance drops from 76% in primary school to 28% in secondary school. Barriers include insufficient government funding leading to fees, the destruction of school buildings during civil conflict, and gender issues, as unsafe travel distances and lack of sanitation facilities hinder girls' attendance. According to UNESCO, 65.81% of youth aged 15 to 24 are literate, compared to just 24.27% of those over 65.
Women in Sudan face both opportunities and obstacles. Sudanese women have historically been active in society, contributing to agriculture, trade, and activism. However, gender-based discrimination, limited access to education, and economic dependence persist. Women’s rights have been a focus of recent movements, particularly during the protests that led to Bashir’s ouster in 2019. Nevertheless, the 2021 military coup and subsequent conflict have stifled progress in gender equality, with many women now contending with heightened insecurity.
Society Resources
LGBT+ Issues
Sudan has conservative societal attitudes, influenced by religious beliefs, to same-sex relationships and LGBT+ people. Historically, same-sex relationships have been criminalized under Sudanese law. Prior to legal reforms in 2020, those convicted could face the death penalty. However, in July of 2020, the death penalty for same-sex relationships was abolished and the maximum penalty to life imprisonment was reduced.
However, social acceptance of LGBT+ people remains low, with discrimination and stigma widespread, often forcing queer people to conceal their identities for safety. Advocacy for LGBT+ rights is highly limited, and few, if any, organizations within Sudan openly support LGBT+ causes due to the severe risks involved. International organizations, however, continue to advocate for the protection of LGBT+ individuals in Sudan.
The 2021 coup and the ongoing civil conflict since 2023 have likely hindered any further advancements in LGBT+ rights, with civil rights in general seeing setbacks due to instability. With societal conservatism still strong and civil liberties under strain, Sudan’s LGBT+ community faces ongoing risks with little support in the current environment.
LGBT+ Resources
Religion
Most Sudanese are Sunni Muslims. Historically, Sufism has hugely influenced much of the country’s experience of Islam and its religious and cultural identity. Sufism is a dimension of Islam that emphasizes personal connection to God and learning through devotion to one’s teachers. The impact of this philosophy on Sudan can be seen in the domes that dot the country, saints’ tombs that often draw visitors and supplicants. Mahmud El Zain claims that Sufism entered Sudan in the early sixteenth century under the Funj sultanate. There are many, many Sufi sects still in existence in Sudan, including the influential Tijaniyya and Khatmiyya sects. PICTURE 8
More recently, the influence of Saudi Arabia and Wahhabism has affected Sudanese Islam. Many young Sudanese men, like men in other nearby countries, have been traveling to Saudi for work since the 1970s. Additionally, Saudi cultural institutions, such as banks and Saudi-funded schools, have become commonplace in Sudan. This has resulted in clear changes, such as the unacceptability of public consumption of alcohol and the adoption of the hijab (Bernal, 1994). However, Sufi practices continue to endure, with many Sudanese adhering to a blend of Sufi and orthodox practices that reflect the country’s unique religious heritage.
Religion Resources
Culture
General Information
Sudan has a rich and diverse culture, shaped by its ethnic multiplicity, history, and strategic location at the crossroads of Africa and the Arab world. Cultural practices vary widely across the country’s regions, however, there’s common values like family unity, hospitality, and resilience. Islam is central to the Sudanese identity, blending with indigenous traditions and Sufi influences. Traditional and contemporary arts, music, and dance are essential expressions of Sudanese culture, and despite political challenges, these aspects of culture remain resilient and vibrant.
Art
Sudanese art combines elements from its African, Arab, and Nubian roots. Traditional art includes pottery, weaving, beadwork, and intricate jewelry, while ancient Nubian and Meroitic sculptures reflect Sudan’s historical significance. Modern Sudanese artists like Ibrahim El-Salahi, a pioneer in African modernism, incorporate calligraphy, folklore, and spirituality into their work. The art scene in Khartoum, though impacted by economic and political restrictions, fosters a strong, independent community, with public murals and exhibitions gaining popularity.
Art Resources
Food
The national dish of Sudan is Ful Medames, cooked fava beans with cumin, usually eaten with vegetables, chili peppers and lemon juice. Another staple Sudanese food is a stew called mulah, served with kisra or ‘aseeda. Kisra is a very thin bread, made from durra or wheat. ‘Aseeda is a porridge-like food made of wheat flour or corn. There are a variety of stews, made from combinations of meat, tomatoes, peanut butter, yogurt, and more.
Different areas of the country have regional specialties, such as the wheat flour gourassa in the north, the Ethiopian-influenced banana paste moukhbaza in the east, and the use of the cereal, dukhun, in the west.
Modern Sudanese cuisine is heavily influenced by Arab and other Mediterranean cultures, which entered the country through trade and settlers during the Turco-Egyptian period. Mediterranean dishes now commonly served in Sudan include things like meatballs, pastries, and stuffed peppers.
Food Resources
Literature & Film
Sudanese literature, heavily influenced by the country’s diverse cultural and linguistic heritage, often explores themes of identity, colonial legacy, and migration. One of the most famous Sudanese literary works is ‘Season of Migration to the North’ by Tayeb Salih, which examines postcolonial identity and the struggles of a Sudanese man who returns to his homeland after studying in Europe. Salih’s novels have collected international acclaim and positioned him as a seminal voice in Arab-African literature. Other notable authors include Leila Aboulela, known for her works ‘The Translator’ and ‘Minaret’, bringing contemporary Sudanese narratives to global readers, especially focussing on the diaspora experience and the challenges of cultural integration in the West. Most Sudanese literature is written in Arabic, however, more and more works in English and indigenous languages are appearing, giving voice to Sudan’s complex cultural layers.
The Sudanese film industry has not had a smooth trajectory due to political instability and limited funding, but in recent years it has witnessed a revival. Historical movies made in Sudan date back to the 1960s and 70s, with some now seen as lost classics due to preservation issues. Sudan’s new generation of filmmakers explore topics like social justice, political repression, and Sudanese identity. The Sudanese Film Group, a collective of filmmakers founded in the 1980s, has been crucial in archiving and promoting Sudanese cinema, organizing screenings and festivals, both within Sudan and internationally.
One recent Sudanese film that stands out is ‘You Will Die at 20’ by Amjad Abu Alala, which won awards at international film festivals and brought attention to Sudanese cinema. The movie is set in a small village in Sudan, telling the story of a young man burdened by a prophecy about his early death. Alala blends universal themes with Sudan’s unique storytelling. Another notable watch is the documentary ‘Talking About Trees’, which portrays the journey of four filmmakers who try to revive an old cinema, highlighting the struggles and resilience of the Sudanese film industry amid political turmoil. With a growing community of filmmakers and an international audience increasingly interested in Sudanese stories, the future of Sudanese film holds promise despite ongoing challenges. International collaborations and film festivals continue to support Sudanese filmmakers, offering them platforms to share their unique perspectives and narratives with the world.
Literature & Film Resources
Clothing
Sudanese clothing reflects a blend of cultural heritage, climate considerations, and influences from neighboring regions, particularly the Arab world. Clothing choices can signify social roles, religious beliefs, and regional affiliations, varying from traditional attire to modern styles based on context and location.
Women traditionally wear a garment called the ‘tobe’. The tobe is a long single piece of fabric that is wrapped around the body and draped over the head in a couple of different styles. Tiyab (the plural of tobe) can be in almost any color and can be made out of a variety of fabrics, depending on the occasion for which it is to be worn. Oftentimes, Indian saris are purchased and slightly trimmed to make tiyab for formal outfits. Tiyab are also sold in the Gulf and are often brought back to Sudan from there. Most brides wear red and gold tiyab for at least part of the wedding festivities.
In urban areas like the capital Kharoum, most unmarried young women do not wear tiyab, and instead opt for long skirts and blouses, the abaya (long, loose dress, primarily in black), or Western clothing for both convenience and fashion.
Traditional dress for a man is a long, loose-fitting whiterobe called a jalaabiya, normally in white, suitable for Sudan’s hot climate. This is typically pairedwith a turban or skullcap, especially during religious or formal events. Like their female counterparts, many men choose to wear Western clothes in urban settings, and save the jalaaleeb for special occasions or religious gatherings.
Regional variations reflect Sudan’s diverse ethnic communities. In the Darfur and Kordofan regions, for example, garments often incorporate specific colors or patterns significant to local customs. In some ethnic groups, men and women wear distinctive tribal jewelry or accessories, with traditional garments woven from locally-sourced materials. Also external influences are seen in Sudanese clothing, notably from Saudi Arabia, due to close cultural and economic ties with the Gulf states.
Sudanese fashion has seen increased international interest, partly due to projects like ‘Khartoum at Night’, which examines Sudan’s history and identity through fashion. The exhibit showcases how clothing expresses resilience, identity, and adaptation in the face of political and social changes, adding a new layer to the understanding of Sudanese fashion’s cultural significance.
Clothing Resources
Music
Music is a central element of Sudanese culture, reflecting its social, spiritual, and artistic identity. One popular genre is called aghani al banat, or “girls’ songs, typically sung by women and deeply rooted in Sudanese social life. Many of these songs do not have known composers/lyricists and are sung and re-sung in different permutations by different singers. Such songs play a crucial role in wedding celebrations during which songs will be sung to praise either the bride and groom or both (listen to an example here). Thematically, these songs often deal with love and marriage, although the sometimes very sassy narrators can subvert classical romantic tropes. Aghani al banat is most often accompanied by the daloka, a traditional Sudanese drum, creating a lively, rhythmic atmosphere. Contemporary male singers sometimes sing traditional girls’ songs. Often, they do not change the gender of the narrator and sing from a female perspective (listen to an example here).
Another important genre of Sudanese music is the songs of the haqeeba. These songs, written in the early to mid-twentieth century, are still widely respected today as examples of beautiful poetry. The haqeeba style grew out of madeeh, Sufi songs in praise of the Prophet. The haqeeba singers followed many of the rhythmic structures and rhyme patterns of madeeh, but they sang of romantic, rather than religious, love. The name of the genre, haqeeba, literally means “bag,” and it was named after a radio presenter who famously selected songs from his bag of music. Haqeeba music is still performed today, both in covers of the original songs and in more modern remixed productions.
In rural and nomadic communities, music is often used for storytelling, spreading folklore and historical events through music. Instruments like the tambour (a type of lyre) and the daloka drum are key instruments here. The ‘kissa’ is a narrative folk song form that connects people with their roots, particularly in Nubian communities in the north of Sudan.
Contemporary Sudanese music blends traditional sounds with modern influences, incorporating jazz, reggae, and hip-hop elements. More recently, Sudanese diaspora artists have used music to explore themes of identity and heritage. Artists like Alsarah, based in Brooklyn, blend traditional Sudanese rhythms with electronic beats, creating a genre known as “East African retro-pop”. Meanwhile, other musicians continue to remix haqeeba songs, breathing new life into these poetic classics with fresh interpretations.
Music Resources
Sites & Places of Interest
In the north of Sudan, one can still see the remains of the ancient Kingdom of Kush. The capital of the kingdom, Meroe, contains many pyramids built to house the bodies of royals after their deaths. The Meroe pyramids are the best preserved of the more than 200 pyramids in Sudan. People in Sudan continued to build pyramids for about 800 years after their northern neighbors in Egypt stopped the practice. The pyramids have been battered by looters; notably, Giuseppe Ferlini, a nineteenth-century Italian explorer, took the tops off of 40 pyramids in his quest for treasure. He carried off the things he found to Italian and German museums.
Another notable spot is Jebel Barkal. Revered by ancient Egyptians and Nubians, this small mountain in Karima was considered the home of Amun, the god of fertility. Surrounding the mountain are ruins of the Temple of Amun, decorated with reliefs depicting rulers and gods. The site’s significance escalated during the New Kingdom of Egypt around 1550-1077 BCE, when Pharaoh Thutmose III extended Egyptian influence into Nubia. He made Jebel Barkal into a spiritual epicenter, linking it to the Karnak Temple in Thebes.
Suakin Island is a former trade center on the Red Sea and known for its coral-built Islamic architecture. It used to be a bustling Ottoman port before Port Sudan took over in the beginning of the 20th century. In addition to trade, Suakin provided the gateway between Islamic culture and Eastern Africa as the major pilgrimage route between Africa and Mecca. The remnants of the sight reflect both Turkish and Islamic influences. PICTURE 14
Located near the Nile, you will find the Nuri pyramids, spreading across more than 170 acres of northern Sudan. They are the burial sites for the Napatan kings from the ancient kingdom of Kush, including Pharaoh Taharqa, a ruler who once ruled Egypt as part of the 25th Dynasty. During this time, five Kushite rulers gave Egypt its 25th Dynasty of pharaohs, also known as the Nubian Dynasty or the Black Pharaohs. One major difference between the pyramids in Sudan and the much more famous pyramids in Egypt is that the kings were buried below them, instead of inside.
Khartoum is home to several museums that offer insights into Sudan’s complex history, culture, and identity. The Sudan National Museum is among the most significant. Located on the banks of the Nile, it houses ancient relics, including artifacts from the Kingdom of Kush, Egyptian-style statuary, and frescoes dating back to Christian Nubian kingdoms. Another noteworthy institution in the Ethnographic Museum, providing a look into Sudan’s ethnic diversity. Its exhibits showcase cultural items from Sudan’s various ethnic groups, illustrating traditional dress, tools, and ritual objects that underscore Sudan’s cultural plurality. Khartoum’s museums also extend to more modern history, such as the Khalifa’s House Museum in Omdurman. This museum was once the residence of Khalifa Abdullahi, successor to the Mahdi, and includes artifacts and weaponry from the Mahdist period, highlighting Sudan’s colonial resistance and later transition into independence.
Additional Reading: Pictures of Sudan’s Forgotten Pyramids
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Sports
Sports play an important role in Sudanese culture, with football being by far the most popular and widely followed sport in the country. Sudan was one of the founding members of the Confederation of African Football (CAF) in 1957, highlighting its early involvement in the development of African football. The national team, known as the “Falcons of Jediane,” achieved a historic win in the 1970 African Cup of Nations (AFCON) and still competes actively, though it faces challenges in regional and international matches due to limited resources. The nation’s two most prominent football clubs, Al-Hilal and Al-Merrikh, both based in Omdurman, fuel a fierce local rivalry that attracts thousands of fans to their matches, underscoring football’s cultural importance in Sudanese society. Handball also enjoys popularity, particularly among youth in urban areas like Khartoum, where clubs and community centers offer facilities.
Additionally, traditional sports have retained cultural significance, particularly wrestling among the Nuba people. Known as Nuba wrestling, this indigenous sport has roots that go back centuries and remains a ritualistic, celebratory event that showcases physical prowess and community unity. Wrestling matches, accompanied by music and chanting, are popular in South Kordofan and Darfur, preserving an essential part of the cultural heritage in these regions.
Sudanese long-distance running, has also garnered interest due to the country’s geographic and cultural proximity to East African nations known for producing elite runners. Though Sudan has yet to achieve the same level of international success in athletics as neighboring Ethiopia and Kenya, local competitions and talent development initiatives continue to grow.
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